Abstract |
Ever since 9/11, America has taken a turn for the worse. As a country, we're facing some of the most difficult moments in our history. Our government is turbulent and divided and mainstream news media is failing to inform Americans. How do we keep push past this mess? I posit that satire and technology have been helping and can continue to help educate, unite, and reinvigorate American citizens.
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Where there is government, there is likely satire. In the Athenian democracy of Ancient Greece, theater played an important role in politics. Comedic poets like Aristophanes (c. 446-386 BCE) often used satire to bring light to prevailing Athenian political and social controversies. Not surprisingly, our Greek-influenced American political machinery isn’t without its fair share of satire. Recently, however, satire is playing a bigger role than it’s ever played before, and it has to. In the past few decades, especially following the cataclysmic 9/11 attacks in 2001, America has faced a myriad of difficult and revealing issues, including severe party polarization, pervasive xenophobia and racial tensions, and a return to tribalism and nationalism. This isn’t to imply that satire is the answer to any of these unmanageable problems, but it has been and can be a powerful tool in this politically turbulent, sensationalist news, Internet-run age. The question is, how can we Americans better understand and participate in our country’s politics in the midst of this mess?
It is important to first establish an understanding of humor and satire. Though there are numerous theories on humor, the two that this paper utilizes are humor as a coping mechanism and the Benign-Violation Theory.
Historically and universally, people use humor to cope with difficult situations. In World War I, soldiers employed gallows humor, humor that treats serious, frightening, or painful things lightly, to maintain morale. Katie Watson, an Assistant Professor at Feinberg School of Medicine, explores how and why humor, though often considered unprofessional, actually helps clinicians and their patients in hospital settings, which are undoubtedly full of difficult moments (Watson). Neil Gibson and Digby Tantam concluded that “a therapist who will not or cannot laugh and appreciate humor may be communicating their own psychological rigidity and lack of empathetic capacity, which could risk derailing the therapy” (285). Humor, then, is a natural human response to misfortune or pain. Whether one employs humor to remain sane, lighten the mood, or create an opportunity for human connection, one uses humor to cope with the stress or anxiety that arises from difficult situations.
In his TED talk, What makes things funny, Peter McGraw, an associate professor of Marketing and Psychology at the University of Colorado Boulder, posits his Benign-Violation Theory, which essentially states that something is funny if it is simultaneously benign and a violation. For example, there’s a twitter account with the handle @MedievalReacts with almost 500,000 followers that posts completely benign historical paintings that are violated by incongruous and sometimes offensive captions. A harmless depiction of Jesus ascending to Heaven titled Ascension, painted in 1775 by John Singleton Copley, becomes a relatable meme for college students when paired with the caption, “This class isn’t compulsory but reccomen…” and small white text beside the messiah saying, “Laters” as he floats into the clouds.
It is important to first establish an understanding of humor and satire. Though there are numerous theories on humor, the two that this paper utilizes are humor as a coping mechanism and the Benign-Violation Theory.
Historically and universally, people use humor to cope with difficult situations. In World War I, soldiers employed gallows humor, humor that treats serious, frightening, or painful things lightly, to maintain morale. Katie Watson, an Assistant Professor at Feinberg School of Medicine, explores how and why humor, though often considered unprofessional, actually helps clinicians and their patients in hospital settings, which are undoubtedly full of difficult moments (Watson). Neil Gibson and Digby Tantam concluded that “a therapist who will not or cannot laugh and appreciate humor may be communicating their own psychological rigidity and lack of empathetic capacity, which could risk derailing the therapy” (285). Humor, then, is a natural human response to misfortune or pain. Whether one employs humor to remain sane, lighten the mood, or create an opportunity for human connection, one uses humor to cope with the stress or anxiety that arises from difficult situations.
In his TED talk, What makes things funny, Peter McGraw, an associate professor of Marketing and Psychology at the University of Colorado Boulder, posits his Benign-Violation Theory, which essentially states that something is funny if it is simultaneously benign and a violation. For example, there’s a twitter account with the handle @MedievalReacts with almost 500,000 followers that posts completely benign historical paintings that are violated by incongruous and sometimes offensive captions. A harmless depiction of Jesus ascending to Heaven titled Ascension, painted in 1775 by John Singleton Copley, becomes a relatable meme for college students when paired with the caption, “This class isn’t compulsory but reccomen…” and small white text beside the messiah saying, “Laters” as he floats into the clouds.
In the context of politics, especially with the rise of one of the most charismatic, unpredictable, dishonest, racist, sexist, and xenophobic (the list could go on) presidents in American history, humor is a natural reaction to the chaos that we’ve been living through. Whether or not you agree that humor is helping, it’s hard to argue against the idea that many Americans could use a good laugh. The Benign-Violation theory lends well to my analysis of humor and American politics because there exists a great disparity between what Americans think is true and what is true. Humor cannot only be a coping mechanism, because that means we believe that what we’re going through is more benign than it really is, or we disbelieve things are more of a violation than we are comfortable accepting. So if humor has to be more than just a way for us to cope, what else can it be? Well, satire is a good place to start. Here’s why:
Satire is not like other kinds of humor. According to McClennen and Maisel, satire ”depends on creating a cognitive space for the audience that allows them to recognize that things they have taken for granted need to be questioned” (McClennen 7). The thing that distinguishes satire from other kinds of humor is that it exists at the junction of entertainment and critical thought. Unlike other forms of cynical humor, it isn’t slander and mockery, it’s social and political commentary. It exposes scandals, informs the public, corrects misinformation, and challenges those exploiting power. Also, in order for satire to even exist, there has to be some powerful person or establishment that deserves it. Real satire draws attention to things that have been overlooked but need consideration. In this way, satire helps people fulfill civic duty because the health of a democracy depends on active and well-informed citizens.
Satire is actually an old tradition in American politics. Satirical political cartoons have been around for as long as America has been a nation. Most notably, from the mid to late 1800s, caricaturist and political cartoonist Thomas Nast satirized “Boss” Tweed and his democratic political machine, Tammany Hall. Through the his network of powerful friends called the “Tweed Ring,” Tweed was able to embezzle millions of dollars from taxpayers. Nast’s cartoons in The New York Times were a major force in the campaign against Tweed. Tweed himself reportedly declared, “I don’t care a straw for your newspaper articles; my constituents don’t know how to read, but they can’t help seeing them damned pictures!” After Tweed was arrested, members of the Tweed Ring fled overseas and he attempted to escape to Spain. He was actually recognized from Nast’s cartoons and intercepted at the Spanish border (Biography.com Editors). Nast’s cartoons are a compelling example of how satire in media plays a potent role in politics.
American politics became significantly more visible to the public in the 1960s due to the game-changing proliferation of television sets in American homes. In the presidential election of 1960, Americans watched televised debates for the first time. If you were listening to the debate on radio, you probably thought Nixon won, but Kennedy won the debate that night because on TV he appeared tan, fit, and young, while Nixon looked pale and ill. As politics became more visible, so did satire. From the 1960s until now, the televised impressions of political figures like President Ford, Michael Dukakis, and George W. Bush by skilled satirists like Chevy Chase, Jon Lovitz, and Dana Carvey made real impacts on the success of those politicians (Howard).
Satire is not like other kinds of humor. According to McClennen and Maisel, satire ”depends on creating a cognitive space for the audience that allows them to recognize that things they have taken for granted need to be questioned” (McClennen 7). The thing that distinguishes satire from other kinds of humor is that it exists at the junction of entertainment and critical thought. Unlike other forms of cynical humor, it isn’t slander and mockery, it’s social and political commentary. It exposes scandals, informs the public, corrects misinformation, and challenges those exploiting power. Also, in order for satire to even exist, there has to be some powerful person or establishment that deserves it. Real satire draws attention to things that have been overlooked but need consideration. In this way, satire helps people fulfill civic duty because the health of a democracy depends on active and well-informed citizens.
Satire is actually an old tradition in American politics. Satirical political cartoons have been around for as long as America has been a nation. Most notably, from the mid to late 1800s, caricaturist and political cartoonist Thomas Nast satirized “Boss” Tweed and his democratic political machine, Tammany Hall. Through the his network of powerful friends called the “Tweed Ring,” Tweed was able to embezzle millions of dollars from taxpayers. Nast’s cartoons in The New York Times were a major force in the campaign against Tweed. Tweed himself reportedly declared, “I don’t care a straw for your newspaper articles; my constituents don’t know how to read, but they can’t help seeing them damned pictures!” After Tweed was arrested, members of the Tweed Ring fled overseas and he attempted to escape to Spain. He was actually recognized from Nast’s cartoons and intercepted at the Spanish border (Biography.com Editors). Nast’s cartoons are a compelling example of how satire in media plays a potent role in politics.
American politics became significantly more visible to the public in the 1960s due to the game-changing proliferation of television sets in American homes. In the presidential election of 1960, Americans watched televised debates for the first time. If you were listening to the debate on radio, you probably thought Nixon won, but Kennedy won the debate that night because on TV he appeared tan, fit, and young, while Nixon looked pale and ill. As politics became more visible, so did satire. From the 1960s until now, the televised impressions of political figures like President Ford, Michael Dukakis, and George W. Bush by skilled satirists like Chevy Chase, Jon Lovitz, and Dana Carvey made real impacts on the success of those politicians (Howard).
Satire also took on other forms. In the 1990s, Tom Otterness, an established New York City artist, was commissioned to create a permanent art installation at the Eighth Avenue subway station. Some of his 130 sculptures hidden throughout the station are based on Nast’s political cartoons, and almost all play on themes of class and corruption. One statue shows a large suited man wrestling a coin out of the hands of a small man. On their site, The Yes Men, a duo with a network of friends, “infiltrate conferences, produce fake newspapers, and do various other weirdness in order to expose the wrongdoings of miscellaneous, mostly corporate evildoers, [recording] the whole thing to get it out to the world through social media, news channels, and [their] own movies." In one of their more famous stunts in 2004, they “posed as representatives of Dow Chemical and claimed that Dow was going to compensate victims of the Bhopal Incident, and the story was picked up on BBC” (McClennen 71).
Given that satire exists as a response to “bad things,” what has been so bad recently? America took a turn for the worse in 2001 following the 9/11 attacks. In response to this historical act of terror, conservatives attempted to completely overhaul American democracy. According to David Rothkopf in his TED talk, How fear drives American politics, “We launched two wars. We spent trillions of dollars. We suspended our values. We violated international law. We embraced torture. We embraced the idea that if these 19 guys could do this, anybody could do it. And therefore, for the first time in history, we were seeing everybody as a threat.” The Bush administration cultivated an atmosphere of fear through a War on Terror and treated any dissenting voices as anti-American. Talk on Fox News said “that Democrats are not only unpatriotic, they hate their country and are trying to destroy it” (McClennen 15). According to Pew Research, more than half of both parties are afraid, angry, or frustrated with the other party and growing numbers see the opposing party as an actual threat.
People no longer only disagree or dislike members of the other party, they fear and hate them. This partisan hyperpolarization is now deeply ingrained in America’s political dynamic, and it’s only one of a number of difficult problems that America is facing today.
Here are some red flags of a dying democracy:
Given that satire exists as a response to “bad things,” what has been so bad recently? America took a turn for the worse in 2001 following the 9/11 attacks. In response to this historical act of terror, conservatives attempted to completely overhaul American democracy. According to David Rothkopf in his TED talk, How fear drives American politics, “We launched two wars. We spent trillions of dollars. We suspended our values. We violated international law. We embraced torture. We embraced the idea that if these 19 guys could do this, anybody could do it. And therefore, for the first time in history, we were seeing everybody as a threat.” The Bush administration cultivated an atmosphere of fear through a War on Terror and treated any dissenting voices as anti-American. Talk on Fox News said “that Democrats are not only unpatriotic, they hate their country and are trying to destroy it” (McClennen 15). According to Pew Research, more than half of both parties are afraid, angry, or frustrated with the other party and growing numbers see the opposing party as an actual threat.
People no longer only disagree or dislike members of the other party, they fear and hate them. This partisan hyperpolarization is now deeply ingrained in America’s political dynamic, and it’s only one of a number of difficult problems that America is facing today.
Here are some red flags of a dying democracy:
- In 2010, the Supreme Court Citizens United decided to give corporations and wealthy individuals the ability to make unlimited campaign donations, allowing individuals like the Koch brothers to essentially puppeteer the Republican Party.
- It has become virtually impossible for a Republican candidate to lose in certain districts due to the redistricting of congressional seats.
- In 2013, the Supreme Court decided to overturn the Voter Rights Act of 1965, which prohibited racial discrimination in voting. Also in 2013, the government actually shut down for 16 days because a group of Republican congressmen wanted to use a budget vote to defund the Affordable Care Act, nicknamed Obamacare, which was repealed in May this year.
- Within the past week, the Senate passed a tax bill that helps the rich and corporations and hurts middle and low-income households.
And to top it all off, Trump is the least traditional president that American has seen. In his book, The Art of the Deal, Trump, a businessman at heart, expresses his approach: “I play to people’s fantasies. People may not always think big themselves, but they can still get very excited by those who do. That’s why a little hyperbole never hurts. People want to believe that something is the biggest and the greatest and the most spectacular” (Trump).
He won last year’s elections because, according to Karina Korostelina, an associate professor in the School for Conflict Analysis and Resolution at George Mason University, “what a brilliant marketer does is they tap into people’s concerns, desires, and they speak to them. Fear sells. Fear has always sold, but so does optimism. So [Trump is] literally selling both” (Korostelina 18). Confronted with an uncertain future and the fears of the “other,” many took a chance with Trump, operating under the belief that Clinton would be another four years of Obama. As easy as it is to satirize Trump and make him into the butt end of a one-liner, we need to take him, his team, and his policies seriously. Trump is dramatically altering how American politics work, and one reason why he’s getting away with it is because of fake news and sensationalism.
He won last year’s elections because, according to Karina Korostelina, an associate professor in the School for Conflict Analysis and Resolution at George Mason University, “what a brilliant marketer does is they tap into people’s concerns, desires, and they speak to them. Fear sells. Fear has always sold, but so does optimism. So [Trump is] literally selling both” (Korostelina 18). Confronted with an uncertain future and the fears of the “other,” many took a chance with Trump, operating under the belief that Clinton would be another four years of Obama. As easy as it is to satirize Trump and make him into the butt end of a one-liner, we need to take him, his team, and his policies seriously. Trump is dramatically altering how American politics work, and one reason why he’s getting away with it is because of fake news and sensationalism.
Tragically, the American government is failing to adequately inform its citizens. The White House used to be a trustworthy source of information. Because the White House didn’t want to get caught lying, the press secretary was often cautious and vague. However, Trump and his press surrogates have shown us that they are comfortable lying to the face of the public. Politifact caught Trump lying 249 times during his campaign and roughly 500 times in his first 200 days in office. At his first press conference, former press secretary Sean Spicer blatantly lied, claiming that Trump’s inauguration crowd was the largest in American history. Trump later complained about media coverage of the size of his inauguration crowd during a visit to CIA headquarters, and a few hours after, Spicer reiterated that Trump’s inaugural crowd was the largest in history, even though it clearly wasn’t. Kellyanne Conway, a counselor to the president, when pressed about this, told NBC reporter Chuck Todd, “Your job is not to call things ridiculous that are said by our press secretary and our president. That’s not your job” (Bradner). But Kellyanne is wrong. It is the job of journalists to do exactly that.
And it’s not just the government, mainstream news media organizations are also failing Americans. In fact, it’s almost as if these institutions are actively misinforming and outright deceiving us. Fox news has become 50% opinion programming with hosts like Bill O’Reilly and Sean Hannity. Hannity actually claimed that Fox news is the “only media organization on this planet that has delivered fair and balanced coverage” (Dismay)- and this is coming from the same guy that dropped some serious dough on a painting of Obama burning the constitution.
Also, our best news reporters like Anderson Cooper and Wolf Blitzer are showing viewers a “this is fine” bias. In perhaps striving to remain unemotional and unfazed for the sake of good news reporting, these reporters convey that things are more mundane than they really are or should be.
Furthermore, news channels treat politics, and news in general, like sports. Jeff Zucker, president of CNN, has a background in entertainment television, and told The New York Times that “the idea that politics is sport is undeniable.” And so we have flashy countdowns, vivid graphics, and debate panels that are essentially screaming matches.
Also, our best news reporters like Anderson Cooper and Wolf Blitzer are showing viewers a “this is fine” bias. In perhaps striving to remain unemotional and unfazed for the sake of good news reporting, these reporters convey that things are more mundane than they really are or should be.
Furthermore, news channels treat politics, and news in general, like sports. Jeff Zucker, president of CNN, has a background in entertainment television, and told The New York Times that “the idea that politics is sport is undeniable.” And so we have flashy countdowns, vivid graphics, and debate panels that are essentially screaming matches.
This combination of mundane absurdity from the White House and normalcy and sensationalism in the news makes it incredibly difficult for Americans to process information. It is left to the average citizen to navigate a government driven by negative partisanship, led by a bumbling, discriminatory president, and covered by biased and sensationalist news outlets.
But there’s hope.
Even though satire hasn’t changed much in the past few decades, it has begun to fill the vacuum of information created by our government and news outlets. According to McClennen and Maisel, “satire has become a source of information rather than just a critic of it… and regularly it is the only source audiences consult due to frustration with and distrust of the mainstream news media” (McClennen 7). A study from Pew Research shows that about six-in-ten online adults have heard of The Colbert Report and one-in-ten get their news there, “on par with such sources as the Wall Street Journal and USA Today” (Gottfried).
But there’s hope.
Even though satire hasn’t changed much in the past few decades, it has begun to fill the vacuum of information created by our government and news outlets. According to McClennen and Maisel, “satire has become a source of information rather than just a critic of it… and regularly it is the only source audiences consult due to frustration with and distrust of the mainstream news media” (McClennen 7). A study from Pew Research shows that about six-in-ten online adults have heard of The Colbert Report and one-in-ten get their news there, “on par with such sources as the Wall Street Journal and USA Today” (Gottfried).
One of the reasons why comedians like Samantha Bee, John Oliver, Stephen Colbert, and Seth Meyers are actually covering important news better than news outlets are is because they have low tolerances for bullshit. In their respective shows, these comedians, unlike news outlets, tell it like it is and confront the ugly side of things. When Trump made an appearance on The Late Show with Stephen Colbert, Colbert asked him whether or not he wanted to apologize to anyone, which, if you take a moment to think about it, is a pretty daring move, and proceeded to poke holes at Trump’s immigration policies. When Trump claimed that Obama was wiretapping him, news people spent segment after segment fixating on whether or not Trump was telling the truth in debates and interviews with intelligence experts, government officials, and Trump supporters. This coverage might not have been untruthful or inaccurate, but it dedicated a disproportionate amount of attention to lies that they, in turn, validated. Comedians, on the other hand, called out the lie, articulated its origins in a conspiracy theory, and moved on after making some witty jokes.
Critics of satire claim that satirists are making a mockery of our nation and developing a culture of apathy and distrust of politics, but satire isn’t responsible for the state of our nation- it just brings attention to the crises of our politics and media, at least better than anything or anyone else is. I don’t actually believe that late night comedy is a good alternative to real news and good journalism, but right now satire seems to be all we have.
Others claim that those turning to these shows for news represents a broader movement of public ignorance and political disengagement, but according to a study by Marcus Schulzke, professor of politics at the University of York, “in addition to challenging fans to interpret the show’s political satire and empowering them to take part in traditional forms of political activity such as voting, petitioning, and direct action, The Colbert Report promotes the expansion of the concept of citizenship to the contestation of information” (McClennen 12). In fact, viewers of Colbert’s show are more politically active and informed than the average American. In 2012, Colbert announced the formation of Americans for a Better Tomorrow, Tomorrow, a political action committee (PAC), through which he eventually raised over a million dollars. A study by Bruce W. Hardy and others, shows that exposure to The Colbert Report increased knowledge about super PACs and campaign finance regulation (Hardy). My generation, often called millennials, actually voted in record numbers in the 2012 presidential election and lead the nation in volunteerism.
Others claim that those turning to these shows for news represents a broader movement of public ignorance and political disengagement, but according to a study by Marcus Schulzke, professor of politics at the University of York, “in addition to challenging fans to interpret the show’s political satire and empowering them to take part in traditional forms of political activity such as voting, petitioning, and direct action, The Colbert Report promotes the expansion of the concept of citizenship to the contestation of information” (McClennen 12). In fact, viewers of Colbert’s show are more politically active and informed than the average American. In 2012, Colbert announced the formation of Americans for a Better Tomorrow, Tomorrow, a political action committee (PAC), through which he eventually raised over a million dollars. A study by Bruce W. Hardy and others, shows that exposure to The Colbert Report increased knowledge about super PACs and campaign finance regulation (Hardy). My generation, often called millennials, actually voted in record numbers in the 2012 presidential election and lead the nation in volunteerism.
So the question remains, how can Americans better understand and participate in politics today? Well my answer is something millennials are good at, and it’s quite simple: technology. One reason why satire is so effective is because satirists like Colbert have gained a large following on the internet. The virality of short clips of clever monologues about the most recent political developments “transcends television schedules and national borders” (McClennen 139). And it’s not only about consuming information, it’s also about producing content. During the 2013 government shutdown, millions of citizens used hashtags like #govtshutdownpickuplines and #nobudgetnopants on Twitter in a kind of citizen-satire activism. On social media platforms like Facebook, Tumblr, Youtube, and Reddit, anyone with access to the internet can basically dialogue with anyone else. In fact, nearly all members of Congress and the Senate are on twitter now. Anyone with an account can quickly and directly tweet their representative. Whether they actually respond is another story, but this increasing accessibility to public figures is happening across the board.
Of course, the internet is no wonderland. We’re facing problems like hacking, trolling, and ethical dilemmas with censorship that we’ve never faced before. In her article How memes helped us cope with the shitshow that was 2016, Emma Hope Allwood claims that memes have been a “tool for expressing our collective internet culture psyche… [and for] expressing ourselves, forming communities, opening up about mental health, proving how out of date corporations and political candidates are and much, much more” (Allwood). Even if this is true, it’s hard to make a case for memes. In 2016, Pepe, an anthropomorphic frog became appropriated as a mascot for the alt-right movement, blurring the lines between internet meme and hate symbol. It’s this ambiguity that actually protects internet trolls and resembles the “I was just kidding,” or, “it was sarcasm” defenses that Trump comes up with. And again, humor shouldn’t only be a coping mechanism. If memes are only good for a quick chuckle, they’re no more valuable than a bad joke. They could be useful, however, if they were informing memers about the ongoings of American politics. Memes aside, the internet is still a practical means for regular Americans to be informed and vocal.
And who knows where technology will take us in the future. Pia Mancini, in her TED talk How to upgrade democracy for the Internet era, shares about how she and her team in Argentina developed a piece of software called DemocracyOS, an open-source web application that bridges citizens and their representatives. Users can learn about every new project in Congress and vote on how they wanted their representatives to vote.
Of course, the internet is no wonderland. We’re facing problems like hacking, trolling, and ethical dilemmas with censorship that we’ve never faced before. In her article How memes helped us cope with the shitshow that was 2016, Emma Hope Allwood claims that memes have been a “tool for expressing our collective internet culture psyche… [and for] expressing ourselves, forming communities, opening up about mental health, proving how out of date corporations and political candidates are and much, much more” (Allwood). Even if this is true, it’s hard to make a case for memes. In 2016, Pepe, an anthropomorphic frog became appropriated as a mascot for the alt-right movement, blurring the lines between internet meme and hate symbol. It’s this ambiguity that actually protects internet trolls and resembles the “I was just kidding,” or, “it was sarcasm” defenses that Trump comes up with. And again, humor shouldn’t only be a coping mechanism. If memes are only good for a quick chuckle, they’re no more valuable than a bad joke. They could be useful, however, if they were informing memers about the ongoings of American politics. Memes aside, the internet is still a practical means for regular Americans to be informed and vocal.
And who knows where technology will take us in the future. Pia Mancini, in her TED talk How to upgrade democracy for the Internet era, shares about how she and her team in Argentina developed a piece of software called DemocracyOS, an open-source web application that bridges citizens and their representatives. Users can learn about every new project in Congress and vote on how they wanted their representatives to vote.
Mancini’s team reached out to political parties and told them, “Look, here you have a platform that you can use to build a two-way conversation with your constituencies.” After they were turned away, they founded their own political party, the Net Party, in 2013, and they ran for elections. Obviously, they didn’t win, but they got attention. Their party garnered 22,000 votes and came in second for local elections. The following month, Congress launched a DemocracyOS to discuss legislation on transportation and the use of public space. Mancini closes her talk with this: “Our political system can be transformed, and not by subverting it, by destroying it, but by rewiring it with the tools that Internet affords us now.” This might be naive and unreasonably optimistic, but I believe that technology can transform American politics, and it has been doing so. We just need to empower innovators and continue utilizing things like the internet to educate ourselves and others, dialogue with those with opposing views, and act on our beliefs. And it doesn’t hurt to have a good laugh every now and then.
Works Cited
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